PUBLISHED RESEARCH AND GRADUATE THESES
Captive Behaviors and Development (15 citations)
Captive Reproduction (27 citations)
Diseases (18 citations)
Field Biology (21 citations)
Genetics (6 citations)
Habitat (26 citations)
Immobilization and Marking Techniques (6 citations)
Nutrition/Food Requirements (9 citations)
Reintroduction (9 citations)
Other (19 citations)
Captive Behaviors and Development (2 projects)
Captive Reproduction (3 projects)
Diseases (10 projects)
Genetics (2 projects)
Habitat (1 project)
Nutrition (1 project)
Reintroduction (8 projects)
PUBLISHED RESEARCH AND GRADUATE THESES
Captive Behaviors And Development
1. Aldous, S.E. 1940. Notes on a black-footed ferret raised in captivity. J. of Mammalogy 21:23-26. Describes behaviors of a black-footed ferret kept in captivity for 5 months.
2. Johnson, J.D., J. Wimsatt, R.H. Wrigley, D.E. Biggins and J.L. Godbey. 1998. Non-invasive fetal growth and development assessment in the Siberian polecat (Mustela eversmanni). Journal of Zoo Medicine. (In press). A discussion of techniques for determining fetal development in the closely related Siberian ferret.
3. Miller, B.J. 1988. Conservation and behavior of the endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) with a comparative analysis of reproductive behavior between the black-footed ferret and the congeneric domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo). Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wyoming, Laramie. A discussion of black-footed ferret biology, including a detailed ethogram for this species. This research also evaluates courtship behavior and reproductive physiology of black-footed ferrets and draws comparison with domestic ferrets.
4. Miller, B.J. and S.H. Anderson. 1990. A behavioral comparison between induced estrus and natural estrus domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). Journal of Ethology. 7: 65-73. A description of ferret captive reproduction.
5. Miller, B.J. and S.H. Anderson. 1990. A comparison of mating behavior between black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes), domestic ferrets (M. putorius furo), and Siberian polecats (M. everesmanni). Zoo Biology 9: 201-210. A description of ferret captive reproduction.
6. Miller, B., D. Biggins, C. Wemmer, R. Powell, L. Calvo, T. Wharton. 1991. Development of survival skills in captive-raised Siberian polecats (Mustela eversmanni) II: Predator avoidance. Journal of Ethology 8: 95-104. A discussion on the development of survival skills and the effects of the captive environment on reintroduction success.
7. Miller, B., D. Biggins, C. Wemmer, R. Powell, L. Hanebury, D. Horn, and A. Vargas. 1991. Development of survival skills in captive-raised Siberian polecats (Mustela eversmanni) I: Locating prey. Journal of Ethology 8: 89-94. A discussion on the development of survival skills and the effects of the captive environment on reintroduction success.
8. Miller, B., D. Biggins, L. Hanebury, C. Conway, C. Wemmer. 1992. Black-footed ferrets--rehabilitation of a species. Wildlife Rehabilitation 9: 183-192. A discussion on the development of survival skills and the effects of the captive environment on reintroduction success.
9. Miller, B.J. and S.H. Anderson. 1993. Descriptive ethology of the endangered black-footed ferret. Advances in Ethology. Paul Parey Press, Berlin. A description of black-footed ferret wild and captive behaviors.
10. Progulske, D.R. 1969. Observations of a penned, wild-captured black-footed ferret. J. Mammal. 50: 619-621. A description of behaviors of a captive black-footed ferret.
11. Vargas, A. 1994. Ontogeny of the endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) and effects of captive upbringing on predatory behavior and post-release survival. PhD. dissertation (UMI publication number: 9430794), University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. 272 pages. An account of black-footed ferret morphological and behavioral development, including research on the effects the captive environment on the development of ferret behaviors (predation, play, food preferences, diel rhythms.) and post-release survival skills.
12. Vargas, A. and S.H. Anderson. 1996. Growth and Development of Captive-Raised Black-footed Ferrets (Mustela nigripes). American Midland Naturalist 135: 43-52. A description of ferret physical development, including a growth model for males and females and an account of dental development (changes of deciduous for permanent dentition).
13. Vargas, A. and S.H. Anderson. 1998. Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Behavioral Development: Aboveground Activity and Juvenile Play. Journal of Ethology: (In press). Describes activity patterns and play behavior in captive-raised black-footed ferrets.
14. Vargas, A. and S.H. Anderson. 1998. Ontogeny of Black-footed Ferret Predatory Behavior towards Prairie Dogs. Canadian Journal of Zoology: (In press). A study on the effects of captive upbringing and individual predatory experience on the development black-footed ferret killing skills towards prairie dogs.
15. Vargas, A. and S.H. Anderson. 1998. Effects of Experience and Cage Enrichment on Predatory Skills of Black-footed Ferrets (Mustela nigripes). Journal of Mammalogy (In press). A study on the effects of age, predatory experience, and captive upbringing on the development black-footed ferret killing skills towards hamsters.
1. Brown, J.L. 1997. Fecal steroid profiles in male and female black-footed ferrets exposed to natural photoperiod. Journal of Wildlife Management 61:4-11. Reproduction cycles and seasonality endocrine profiles are monitored by fecal hormones.
2. Brown, J.L., S.K. Wasser, D.E. Wildt, L.H. Graham and S.L. Monfort. 1997. Fecal steroid analysis for monitoring ovarian and testicular function in diverse carnivore, primate and ungulate species. Proceedings: 1st International Symposium on Physiology and Ethology of Wild and Zoo Animals, pp.27-31. Fecal hormones used to assess female and male reproductive cycles, including the black-footed ferret.
3. Carpenter, J.W.. 1985. Captive breeding and management of black-footed ferrets. Pages 12.1-12.13 in S. Anderson and D. Inkley, eds. Black-footed ferret Workshop Proceedings, Laramie, Wyoming, September 18-19, 1984. Wyoming Game an Fish Publ., Cheyenne, Wyoming. Review of captive breeding efforts at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center from 1968 to 1979.
4. Carvalho, C.F., J.G. Howard, L. Collins, C. Wemmer, M. Bush and D.E. Wildt. 1991. Captive breeding of black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) and comparative reproductive efficiency in 1-year old versus 2-year old animals. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 22:96-106. Description of black-footed ferret breeding program at the National Zoo's Conservation and Research Center which maintains animals in outdoor enclosures on natural light.
5. Don Carlos, M.W., B. Miller, and E.T. Thorne. 1989. The 1986 black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) captive breeding program. Pages 235-246 in "Conservation Biology of the Black-footed Ferret" Eds. U.S. Seal, S.H. Anderson, M. Bogan, E.T. Thorne. Yale Press, New Haven Connecticut. A description of black-footed ferret captive reproduction.
6. Gross, T.S., C. Wieser and M. Patton. 1993. Analysis of the ovarian cycle in black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) by vaginal cytology and fecal hormone measurement. Biol. Reprod. 45:647-656. 1993. A study on the reproductive cycle of black-footed ferret females.
7. Gross, T.S., C. Wieser, D.L. Armstrong, J.E. Bradley, G.J. Petit, D.G. Cassidy and L.G. Simmons. 1990. Analysis of the ovarian cycle in the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) by vaginal cytology and fecal hormone measurement, Biol. Reprod. 42(Suppl.1):50. A study on the reproductive cycle of black-footed ferret females.
8. Hillman, C.N. and J. W. Carpenter. 1983. Breeding Biology and Behavior of Captive Black-footed ferrets. Intern. Zoo. Yearbook 23: 186-191. Describes black-footed ferret reproduction at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center.
9. Howard, J.G., S.L. Hurlbut, C. Morton, F. Morton, M. Bush and D.E. Wildt. 1989. Pregnancies in the domestic ferret after laparoscopic artificial insemination with frozen-thawed spermatozoa. Journal of Andrology (Supplement):52-P (abstract 135). Domestic ferret used as animal model to assess biological competency of cryopreserved ferret sperm.
10. Howard, J.G., M. Bush, C. Morton, F. Morton and D.E. Wildt. 1991. Comparative semen cryopreservation in ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) and pregnancies after laparoscopic intrauterine insemination with frozen-thawed spermatozoa. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 92:109-118. Development of optimum sperm freezing method in ferrets and kits produced by cryopreserved sperm.
11. Howard, J.G., D.R. Kwiatkowski, E.S. Williams, R.W. Atherton, R.M. Kitchin, E.T. Thorne, M. Bush and D.E. Wildt. 1996. Pregnancies in black-footed ferrets and Siberian polecats after laparoscopic artificial insemination with fresh and frozen-thawed semen. Journal of Andrology (Supplement):P-51 (abstract 115). Assessment of artificial insemination and semen freezing techniques developed in domestic ferret model for application to Siberian polecats and black-footed ferrets.
12. Howard, J.G., K. Wolf, A. Vargas, P. Marinari, J. Kreeger, L. Williamson and D.E. Wildt. 1997. Enhanced reproductive efficiency and pregnancies after artificial insemination in black-footed ferrets. Proceedings: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 351-352. Integration of assisted reproduction and a Genome Resource Bank in the management of black-footed ferrets and kits produced by artificial insemination using sperm from males that failed to breed naturally.
13. Howard, J.G., K.N. Wolf, P.E. Marinari, J.S. Kreeger, T.R. Anderson, A. Vargas and D.E. Wildt. 1998. Delayed onset of sperm production in 1-year old male black-footed ferrets. Proceedings: Society for the Study of Reproduction. Supplement 58: 124. 1-year old males maintained indoors produced sperm later than 2-3 year old males.
14. Kitchin, R.W., P.T. Curry, W. Borgess, M. Straley, M. Parker, and R.W. Atherton. Comparison of sperm content and sperm motility of European, Siberian, and black-footed ferrets. J. of Andrology 9:40. Sperm motility and concentration is significantly diminished for black-footed ferrets when compared to domestic and Siberian ferrets.
15. Miller, B.J. and S.H. Anderson. 1989. Evaluation of fertilization during abbreviated copulations in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). Journal of Experimental Zoology 249: 85-89. A description of ferret captive reproduction.
16. Thorne, E.T. 1987. Captive propagation of the black-footed ferret in Wyoming. Pages 419-424 in American Association of Zool. Parks and Aquariums. Regional Conference Proceedings. AAZPA Publ., Syracuse, NY. An update of black-footed ferret propagation efforts and techniques used at the WGFD Sybille Wildlife Conservation Unit, Wyoming.
17. Thorne, E.T., D.R. Kwiatkowski, R. Oakleaf, and E.S. Williams. 1988. Black-footed ferret captive propagation: A chance for recovery. Fifth World Conference on Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity. Cincinnati, Ohio. Discusses black-footed ferret captive breeding efforts and management techniques used at the WGFD Sybille Wildlife Conservation Unit, Wyoming.
18. Wieser, Carla M., Gross, T.S. and Patton, M. 1992. Correlation of Testicular Size to Fecal Steroid Concentrations in the Black-footed Ferret. Animal Keepers Forum, November 1992, volume 19, #11, pp 389-393. A study on the reproductive biology of black-footed ferret males.
19. Wildt, D.E., J.G. Howard, C. Morton and M. Bush. 1987. Reproductive studies of the domestic ferret as an investigational model for the black-footed ferret. Proceedings: Proceedings: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, pp. 382-383. Use of domestic ferret as animal model for studying reproduction in the black-footed ferret.
20. Wildt, D.E. and K.L. Goodrowe. 1988. The potential for embryo technology in the black-footed ferret. In: Conservation Biology and the Black-Footed Ferret, U.S. Seal, E.T. Thorne, M.A. Bogan and S.H. Anderson, eds., Yale University Press, New Haven, pp. 160-176. Potential benefits of assisted reproduction in the recovery of the black-footed ferret.
21. Wildt, D.E., M. Bush, C. Morton, F. Morton and J.G. Howard. 1989. Semen characteristics and testosterone profiles in ferrets kept in long-day photoperiod, and the influence of hCG timing and sperm dilution on pregnancy rate after laparoscopic insemination. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 86:349-358. Assessment of semen traits and processing techniques for successful artificial insemination in ferrets.
22. Wildt, D.E., S.L. Monfort, A.M. Donoghue, L.A. Johnston and J.G. Howard. 1992. Embryogenesis in conservation biology -- or, how to make an endangered species embryo. Theriogenology 37:161-184. Pregnancies in ferrets after artificial insemination using fresh or frozen semen.
23. Wildt, D.E., W.F. Rall, J.K. Critser, S.L. Monfort and U. S. Seal. 1997. Genome Resource Banks: Living Collections for biodiversity conservation. BioScience 47: 689-698. Describes benefits of Genome Resource Banks for endangered species, including the black-footed ferret.
24. Williams, E. S., E. T. Thorne, D. R. Kwiatkowski, K. Lutz, and S. L. Anderson. 1991. Reproductive biology and management of captive black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes). Zoo Biology 10:383-398. Describes black-footed ferret female reproductive cycle and provides recommendations for managing ferrets during breeding season.
25. Williams, E. S., E. T. Thorne, D. R. Kwiatkowski, K. Lutz, and S. L. Anderson. 1992. Comparative vaginal cytology of the estrus cycle of black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes), Siberian polecats (M. eversmanni), and domestic ferrets (M. putorius furo). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 4:38-44. Provides a description and comparisons of the reproductive cycle of three ferret species using vaginal cytology.
26. Wolf, K.N., D.E. Wildt, A. Vargas, P. Marinari, L. Williamson, M.A. Ottinger and J.G. Howard. 1998. Compromised reproductive efficiency in male black-footed ferrets. Journal of Andrology. 1998 supplement: 44. More than 50% of prime breeding age males failed to sire offspring in 1995, 1996 and 1997.
27. Young, K.M. 1988. Reproductive biology of the black-footed ferret. M.S. thesis. University of Guelph, Canada. Evaluates reproductive cycles of black-footed ferret females maintained at the Metro Toronto Zoo. Ovulation and diestrus can effectively be detected by fecal progesterone levels. Restraining black-footed ferrets during the peri-copulatory interval may have a negative impact upon breeding success.
1. Anderson, S. H. and E. S. Williams. 1997. Epizootiologic features of plague in a complex of white-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys leucurus) and associated small mammals in northwestern Wyoming. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33: 720-732.
2. Boddicker, M.L. 1968. Parasites of the black-footed ferret. Proc. South Dakota Acad. Sci. 47:141-148. Identifies fleas, ticks and nematodes found in black-footed ferrets.
3. Carpenter, J.W., M.J.G. Appel, R.C. Erickson, and M.N. Novilla. 1976. Fatal vaccine-induced canine distemper virus infection in black-footed ferrets. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 169:961-964. Discusses mortalities of captive black-footed ferrets caused by inoculation with modified canine distemper virus.
4. Carpenter, J.M., and M.N. Novilla. 1977. Diabetes mellitus in a black-footed ferret. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 171:890-893. Reports a ferret mortality caused by diabetes mellitus, includes necropsy and histopahological findings. Reports a case of diabetes mellitus in a black-footed ferret, including necropsy and histopathologic findings.
5. Carpenter, J.W., M.N. Novilla, and H.E. Kaiser. 1979. Neoplasia and other disease problems in black-footed ferrets: implications for an endangered species. Pages 739-746 in Neoplasms: Comparative Pathology and Abnormal Growth, H.E. Kaiser (ed.). Raven Press. New York, NewYork. Examines neoplasia in five captive black-footed ferrets and suggests that their origin is associated with low genetic variability.
6. Carpenter, J.W., J.D. Davidson, M.N. Novilla, and J.C.M. Huang. 1980. Metastatic, papillary cystadenocarcinoma of the mammary gland in a black-footed ferret. Reports the death of a captive female at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, includes necropsy and histopathological findings.
7. Gompper, M. E., and E. S. Williams. 1997. Parasites and conservation: Insights from the black- footed ferret recovery program. Conservation Biology 11: In press.
8. Jolley, W. R., N. Kingston, E. S. Williams, and C. Lynn. 1994. Coccidia, Giardia sp., and a physalopteran nematode parasite from black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) in Wyoming. Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington 61: 89-94.
9. Kennedy-Stoskopf, S., A.E. Horsman, and R.B. Burns. 1997. Absence of Interleukin-6-(IL-6) expression in the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). The Seventh Congress of the International Society of Developmental and Comparative Immunology, July 21-25, 1997, The College of William and Mary Williamsburg, VA. (abstr., pp 217). Inability to produce IL-6 may increase vulnerability of black-footed ferrets to certain infectious agents that require a strong humoral immune response or neutrophil mobilization.
10. List, K. A. 1994. Investigation of immune function following canine distemper vaccination and challenge in black-footed ferret X Siberian polecat hybrids. M.S. Thesis. University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. 136 pp.
11. Rockett, J., R. S. Seville, N. Kingston, E. S. Williams, and E. T. Thorne. 1990. A cestode, Taenia mustelae Gemlin, 1790, in the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) and the white-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) in Wyoming. Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington 57:160-162.
12. Thorne, E. T. and E. S. Williams. 1988. Disease and endangered species: The black-footed ferret as a recent example. Conservation Biology 2:66-74. Discusses the 1985 canine distemper epizootic at Meeteetse in the context of recovery implications for this endangered species. Provides examples of diseases that can affect other endangered species.
13. Williams, E. S., E. T. Thorne, M. J. G. Appel, and D. W. Belitsky. 1988. Canine distemper in black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) from Wyoming. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 24:385-398. Describes clinical signs and death of six wild-caught black-footed ferrets from Meeteetse, includes necropsy and histopathological findings. Concludes that most black-footed ferrets from the Meeteetse colony apparently died from distemper during the summer and fall of 1985.
14. Williams, E. S., E. T. Thorne, T. S. Quan, and S. L. Anderson. 1991. Experimental infection of domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) and Siberian polecats (Mustela eversmanni) with Yersinia pestis. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 27:441-445. Discusses resistance to plague in 8 domestic ferrets and 2 Siberian polecats inoculated with a subcutaneous dose of Y. pestis, and suggests that black-footed ferrets may also be resistant to plague.
15. Williams, E. S., K. Mills, D. R. Kwiatkowski, E. T. Thorne, and A. Boerger-Fields. 1994. Plague in a black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 30: 581-585. Describes the case of a captive black-footed ferret that died of plague, presumably due to ingestion of an infected wild rodent; provides necropsy and histopathologic findings.
16. Williams, E. S., S. L. Anderson, J. Cavender, C. Lynn, K. List, C. Hearne, and M. J. G. Appel. 1996. Vaccination of black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) x Siberian polecat (M. eversmanni) hybrids and domestic ferrets (M. putorius furo) against canine distemper. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 32: 417-423. Discusses the efficacy of an inactivated canine distemper vaccine in black-footed ferrets and of a Modified Live Virus vaccine in hybrids and domestic ferrets.
17. Williams, E. S., and E. T. Thorne. 1996. Infectious and parasitic diseases of captive carnivores, with special emphasis on the black-footed ferret. Review Scientific and Technical Office of International Epizootics 15: 91-114.
18. Williams, E. S., and E. T. Thorne. 1998. Veterinary contributions to the black-footed ferret conservation program. In Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine 4th Edition, M. E. Fowler (ed.). W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (in press).
1. Anderson, E.,S.C. Forrest, T.W. Clark and L. Richardson. 1986. Paleobiology, biogeography, and systematics of the black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes (Audubon and Bachman), 1851. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 8:11-62. Review, historical occurrence of distribution and analysis of existing skeletal materials to test for differentiation among possible ferret subspecies and to establish discriminant analysis between ferrets and related species.
2. Biggins, D.E., M.H. Schroeder, S.C. Forrest, and L. Richardson. 1986. Activity of radio-tagged black-footed ferrets. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 8:135-140. Black-footed ferret activity patterns at Meeteetse.
3. Biggins, M.H. Schroeder, S.C. Forrest, and L. Richardson. Movements and habitat relationships of radio-tagged black-footed ferrets. Pp. 11.1-11.7 in Proc. Black-footed Ferret Workshop, Sep. 18-19, 1984, S. Anderson and D.B. Inkley, eds., Wyo. Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne. Habitat use by black-footed ferrets based on radio-telemetry data.
4. Campbell III, T.M., D.E. Biggins, S.C. Forrest, and T.W. Clark. 1985. Spotlighting as a method to locate and study black-footed ferrets. Pp. 24.1-24.7 in Proc. Black-footed Ferret Workshop, Sep. 18-19, 1984, S. Anderson and D.B. Inkley, eds., Wyo. Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne. Field location techniques for ferrets.
5. Clark, T.W. L. Richardson, D. Casey, T.M. Campbell III and S.C. Forrest. 1984. Seasonality of black-footed ferret diggings and prairie dog hole plugging. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 48:1441-1448. Description of ferret diggings and frequency of occurrence at Meeteetse, WY.
6. Clark, T.W., L. Richardson, S.C. Forrest, D. Casey, and T.M. Campbell III. 1986 Descriptive ethology and activity patterns of black- footed ferrets. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 8:115-134. A description of the behavior and diel rhythms of wild black-footed ferrets.
7. Forrest, S.C., T.W. Clark, D.E. Biggins, L. Richardson, K.A. Fagerstone, and T.M. Campbell III. 1985. Life history characteristics of the genus Mustela, with special reference to the black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes. Pp. 23.1-23.14 in Proc. Black-footed ferret Workshop, Sep. 18-19, 1984, S. Anderson and D.B. Inkley, eds., Wyo. Game and Fish Dept.,Cheyenne. Review of comparative life histories of mustela spp. and preliminary data on life history of the black-footed ferret from Meeteetse, WY.
8. Forrest, S.C., D.E. Biggins, T.W. Clark, L. Richardson, T.M. Campbell III, K.A. Fagerstone, and E.T. Thorne. 1988. Population attributes for the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) at Meeteetse, Wyoming, 1981-1985. J. Mammalogy. 69:261-273. Life history of wild black-footed ferrets, including estimates of mortality, fecundity, distribution, habitat use.
9. Hammer D.A. 1985. Using scent attractants as a technique to locate black-footed ferrets. Pages 26.1-26.12 in S. Anderson and D. Inkley (eds). Black-footed ferret workshop proceedings, Laramie, Wyoming, September 18-19, 1984. Evaluation of 16 scent attractants in the lab and 6 in the field. No black-footed ferret visitations documented.
10. Henderson, F. R., P.F. Springer, and R. Adrian. 1969. The Black-footed ferret in South Dakota. Tech. Bull. South Dakota Dept. Game, Fish, Parks 4: 1-37. An account of life history, behavioral and ecology data of black-footed ferrets in Mellete county, South Dakota.
11. Hillman, C.N. 1968a. Life history and ecology of the black-footed ferret in the wild. M.S. thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings. 28pp. Describes black-footed ferret activity patterns, behavior, movements, food habits and relationships to prairie dogs.
12. Hillman, C.N. 1968b. Field observations of black-footed ferrets in South Dakota. Transcripts of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 33: 433-443. Data on diurnal activity,, reproductive and maternal behavior, food habits, and dispersal of black-footed ferrets in Mellete county, South Dakota.
13. Johnson, M.K., T.W. Clark, M.H. Schroeder, and L. Richardson. 1986. Fecal bile acids of black-footed ferret s. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 8:141-144. Examines fecal bile acids as a method to identify the presence of black-footed ferrets in an area and concludes that this method is not recommendable.
14. Lamberson, R.H., M. Butler, R. VanKirk, and C. Voss. 1989. A viability assessment for an isolated black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) population. Env. Syst. Program, Humboldt State Univ., 61 pp. A viability model for black-footed ferrets.
15. Linder, R.L. and C.N. Hillman. 1973. Proceedings of the Black-footed Ferret and Prairie Dog Workshop. R.L. Linder and C.N. Hillman (eds.). South Dakota State University, Brookings South Dakota.
16. Lindzey, F.G. and P.E. Marinari. 1992. Spotlighting for Black-footed Ferrets (Mustela nigripes). U.S. Dept. Int., Fish and Wildlife Research Info. Bull. No 74. Model that incorporates known BFF behavior with current spotlight survey technique guidelines to determine the probability of encountering a BFF.
17. Marinari, P.E. Detectability of Black-footed Ferrets Using Spotlighting. 1992. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wyoming. Developed a computer model incorporating known BFF behavior with current spotlight survey technique guidelines to determine the probability of encountering a BFF.
18. Paunovich, R., and S.C. Forrest. 1987. Activity of a wild black-footed ferret litter. Prairie Nat. 19:159-162. Habitat use by a single litter of ferrets during summer, estimates of prey
19. Richardson, L., T.W. Clark, S.C. Forrest, and T.M. Campbell III. 1985. Snowtracking as a method to search for and study the black-footed ferret. Pp. 25.1-25.11 in Proc. Black-footed Ferret Workshop, Sep. 18-19, 1984, S. Anderson and D.B. Inkley, eds., Wyo. Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne. Field identification of ferret sign.
20. Richardson, L., T.W. Clark, S.C. Forrest, and T.M. Campbell III. 1987. Winter ecology of the black-footed ferret. Amer. Midl. Nat. 117:225-239. Habitat use by ferrets in winter.
21. Sheets, R. G. 1970. Ecology of the black-footed ferret and the black-tailed prairie dog. M.S. thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings. 42pp. Compares diggings between ferrets and black-tailed prairie dogs, provides ferret scat analyses (86% of scats contained prairie dog), and demonstrates that areas occupied by ferrets have a significant decrease in prairie dog numbers.
1. Ballou, J.D. 1989. Inbreeding and outbreeding depression in captive propagation of black-footed ferrets. pages 49-68 in Conservation Biology of the Black-Footed Ferret. Seal, U.S., E.T. Thorne, M.A. Bogan, and S.H. Anderson (eds.). New Haven, Yale University Press. Discusses genetic management techniques that could affect survival and reproduction of black-footed ferrets.
2. Ballou, J.D. and B. Oakleaf. 1989. Demographic and genetic captive breeding recommendations for black-footed ferrets. Pages 247-267 in Conservation Biology of the Black-Footed Ferret. Seal, U.S., E.T. Thorne, M.A. Bogan, and S.H. Anderson (eds.). New Haven, Yale University Press. Provides detailed genetic and demographic recommendations for the long-term preservation of black-footed ferrets in captivity.
3. Kilpatrick, W.R, S.C. Forrest, and T.W. Clark. 1986. Estimating genetic variability in the black-footed ferret: a first attempt. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 8:145-149. Attempt to establish genetic variability based on salival samples from the black-footed ferret.
4. Lacy, R., and T.W. Clark. 1989. Genetic variability in black-footed ferret populations: past, present, and future. Pages 83-103 in Conservation Biology of the Black-Footed Ferret. Seal, U.S., E.T. Thorne, M.A. Bogan, and S.H. Anderson (eds.). New Haven, Yale University Press. An estimation of black-footed ferret genetic variability based on historical and recent declines in wild populations. Genetic variability is examined under several possible scenarios.
5. O'Brien, S.J.,J. Martenson, M. Eichelberger, E.T. Thorne, F. Wright. 1989. Genetic variation and molecular systematics of the black-footed ferret. Pages 21-33 in Conservation Biology of the Black-Footed Ferret. Seal, U.S., E.T. Thorne, M.A. Bogan, and S.H. Anderson (eds.). New Haven, Yale University Press. An analysis of black-footed ferret genetic variability using a survey of 46 gene-enzyme systems. Study includes an estimate of the time elapsed since black- footed ferrets and Siberian ferrets shared a common ancestor.
6. Russell, W.C., E.T Thorne, R. Oakleaf, J.D. Ballou. 1994. The genetic basis of black-footed ferret reintroduction. Conservation Biology 8:263-266. Description of genetic management decisions to select black-footed ferrets for release.
Habitat (at reintroduction sites)
1. Bevers, M., J. Hof, D.W. Uresk, G.L. Schenbeck. 1998. Spatial optimization of prairie dog colonies for black-footed ferret recovery. Operations Research (in press). A discrete-time reaction-diffusion model for BFF population growth and dispersal with active prairie dog colonies optimized over time for maximum expected BFF carrying capacity.
2. Biggins, D.E., B.J. Miller, B. Oakleaf, A. Farmer, R. Crete and A. Dood. 1993. An evaluation of black-footed ferret habitat. Pages 73-88 in Management of Prairie Dog Complexes for Black-footed Ferret Reintroduction. Eds. J. Oldemeyer, D. Biggins, B. Miller, and R. Crete. U.S.F.W.S. Denver, Colorado. An evaluation of ferret habitat used to compare potential reintroduction sites.
3. Clark, T.W., T.W. Campbell III, M.H. Schroeder, and L. Richardson. 1984. Handbook of methods for locating black-footed ferrets. Wyoming Bur. Land Manage, Cheyenne. Wild. Tech. Bull. No 1. 55 pages. Detailed methods of conducting black-footed ferret surveys; includes references to a key to identify mustelid skulls.
4. Clark, T.W., J. Grensten, M. Gorges, R. Crete, and J. Gill. 1987. Analysis of black-footed ferret translocation sites in Montana. Prairie Naturalist 19: 43-56. Examines habitat characteristics of 8 potential black-footed ferret reintroduction sites in Montana and discusses habitat patches and metapopulation management in terms of ferret recovery.
5. Cully, J.F., Jr. 1989. Plague in prairie dog ecosystems: importance for black-footed ferret management. Pages 47-55 in The prairie dog ecosystem: managing for biological diversity. T.W. Clark, D. Hinckley, and T. Rich (eds.). Montana Bureau of Land Management wildlife Technical Bulletin 2. Discusses pest control and plague epizootics in the context of black-footed ferret recovery needs.
6. Fagerstone, K.A. and D.E. Biggins. 1986. Comparison of capture-recapture and visual count indices of prairie dog densities in black-footed ferret habitat. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 8:94-98. Describes prairie dog surveys in Meeteetse and recommends procedures for surveys in potential reintroduction areas for black-footed ferrets.
7. Forrest, S.C., T.W. Clark, L. Richardson, and T.M. Campbell III. 1985. Black-footed ferret habitat: some management and reintroduction considerations. Wyo. Bur. Land Mgmt. Wildl. Tech. Bull. No. 2. 44 pp. Habitat use by black-footed ferrets at Meeteetse, WY, and recommendations for minimum habitat requirements for ferrets.
8. Goodrich, J. M. 1994. North American badgers (Taxidea taxus) and black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) : abundance, rarity, and conservation in a white-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus)-based community. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming. 102pp. Evaluates the effects of lethal removal of badgers on changes in badger densities, age structures, disease frequency, movements and home-ranges and migration rates. Discusses predator removal as a management strategy for ferret reintroductions.
9. Hillman, C.N., R.L. Linder, and R.B. Dahlgren. 1979. Prairie dog distributions in areas inhabited by black-footed ferrets. American Midland Naturalist 102:18-187. A comparison "ferret-free" vs "ferret-occupied" black-tailed prairie dog colonies in Mellete county, South Dakota; includes recommendations concerning size and distribution of prairie dog colonies.
10. Hoogland, J.L. 1981. The evolution of coloniality in white-tailed and black-tailed prairie dogs (Sciuridae: Cynomys leucurus and C. ludovicianus). Ecology 62:252-272. Discusses the possible effects of nocturnal, fossorial black-footed ferrets on the evolution of prairie dogs. Concludes that reduced predation might be the most important benefit to prairie dog colonialism.
11. Houston, B.R., T.W. Clark, and S. Minta. 1986. Habitat suitability index model for the black-footed ferret: a method to locate transplant sites. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs 8:99-114. A model to evaluate habitat potential for black-footed ferrets.
12. Langer, T. 1998. Effect of historical patterns of land use on the spatial distribution of black-tailed prairie dogs in Badlands National Park. M.S. Thesis. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. A quantitative GIS analysis of land disturbance patterns which underpin the current black-tailed prairie dog ecosystem landscape pattern, suggestive of future fire:bison:black-tailed prairie dog spatial disturbance dynamics.
13. Linder, R.L., and C.N. Hillman. 1973. Black-footed ferret and prairie dog workshop, South Dakota State University, Brookings. A workshop on black-footed ferrets and prairie dogs that includes status reports from Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, and Saskatchewan. Proceedings also include papers on black-footed ferret and prairie dog programs on public lands, Forest Service lands, National Resource lands, National Parks, and Indian Reservations.
14. Matchett, M.R., D. Biggins and J.L. Godbey. 1997. Establishment and accuracy assessment of fixed-station telemetry systems with global positioning system equipment. Forum on Wildlife Telemetry, September 21-23, Snowmass Village, CO (abstract from poster presentation) 1pp. An evaluation of the Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment used to establish coordinates for telemetry station and reference transmitter locations during black-footed ferret reintroduction efforts in Montana during 1994 and 1995.
15. Menkens, G.E., D.E. Biggins, and S.H. Anderson. 1990. Visual counts as an index of white-tailed prairie dog population density. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18:290-296. Describes prairie dog surveys in Meeteetse and recommends procedures for surveys in potential reintroduction areas for black-footed ferrets.
16. Miller, B., C. Wemmer, D. Biggins, R. Reading. 1990. A proposal to conserve black footed ferrets and prairie dog ecosystem. Environmental Management 14: 763-769. A proposal to conserve black-footed ferret habitat by addressing the government subsidy for prairie dog poisoning.
17. Miller, B., G. Ceballos, and R. Reading. 1994. Prairie Dogs, Poison, and Biotic Diversity. Conservation Biology 8: 677-681. A proposal to protect prairie dogs which are critical habitat for black-footed ferrets.
18. Miller, B.J., G.E. Menkens, and S.H. Anderson. 1988. A habitat model for the black-footed ferret. Pages 98-102 in Eighth Great Plains Wildlife Damage Control Workshop. U.S. Forest Service, Rapid City, South Dakota. A model to evaluate habitat potential for black-footed ferrets.
19. Minta, S. C., an T.W. Clark. Habitat Suitability Analysis of potential translocation sites for black-footed ferrets in northcentral Montana. Pages 29-45 in The prairie dog ecosystem: managing for biological diversity. T.W. Clark, D. Hinckley, and T. Rich (eds.). Montana Bureau of Land Management wildlife Technical Bulletin 2. Delineates suitability of prairie dog complexes for potential ferret reintroductions in MT.
20. Morkill, A., D. Belitsky, J. Hanna, and B. Miller. 1987. Black-footed ferret surveys-Meeteetse, Wyoming. Pages 47-58 in "Endangered and Non-game Birds and Mammal Investigations." Eds. B. Oakleaf, D. Belitsky, and S. Ritter. Wyoming Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne, Wyoming. A summary of field surveys at Meeteese, Wyoming.
21. Oldemeyer, J.L., D.E. Biggins, and B. Miller. 1993. Management of prairie dog complexes for the reintroduction of the black-footed ferret. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 13. 96pp. Compiles a series of workshop papers that discuss prairie dog habitat and ecology and its relationship too black-footed ferret recovery needs.
22. Powell, R.A. 1982. Prairie dog coloniality and black-footed ferrets. Ecology 63(6):1957-1968. Suggests that the black-footed overlap with black-tailed prairie dogs influenced the prairie dog adaptation for denser colonies.
23. Reading, R. P., J. J. Grensten, S. R. Beissinger, and T. W. Clark. 1989. Attributes of black-tailed prairie dog colonies in Phillips County, MT, with management recommendations for the conservation of biodiversity. Montana Bureau of Land Management Wildlife Technical Bulletin 2:13-27. Addresses black-tailed prairie dog colony dynamics on a complex of colonies within a proposed ferret reintroduction site. Colonies were evaluated using island biogeographic theory in an attempt to understand colony expansion, contraction, and influence on species richness.
24. Reading, R. P. and R. Matchett. 1997. Attributes of black-tailed prairie dog colony in northcentral Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 61:664-673. Black-tailed prairie dog colony attributes were characterized and assessed on a ferret reintroduction site using a geographic information system. Colonies were compared with randomly distributed polygons to evaluate colony characteristics such as soils, slope, aspect, land tenure, and proximity to roads.
25. Roemer, D.M. and S.C. Forrest. 1996. Prairie dog poisoning in the northern Great Plains: An analysis of programs and policies. Env. Mgmt. 20:349-359. Review of programs affecting habitat of black-footed ferrets in Wyoming, Montana, and South Dakota.
26. Severson, K. and G. E. Plumb. 1998. Comparison of methods to estimate population densities of black-tailed prairie dogs. Wildl. Bull (in press). Comparison of mark-recapture, fixed plot visual count, and line transect burrow count techniquest for estimating black-tailed prairie dog abundance. Results suggest line transect burrow counts should not be used to generate precise estimates of BTPD abundance but that visual counts generate a significant predictive model accounting for 65% variability in aboveground BTPD activity.
Immobilization And Marking Techniques
1. Fagerstone, K.S. D.E. Biggins, and T.M. Campbell III. 1985. Marking and radio-tagging of black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes). Pp. 10.1-10.10 In S. Anderson and D. Inkley, eds., Proceedings of the Black-footed Ferret Workshop. Wyoming Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne. Discusses marking techniques used in black-footed ferrets at Meeteetse .
2. Fagerstone, K.S., and B.E. Johns. 1987. Transponders as permanent identification marks for domestic ferrets, black-footed ferrets and other wildlife. Journal of Wildlife Management 51:294-297. Tests transponder technology in domestic and black-footed ferrets and concludes that transponders offer a reliable way of identifying ferrets and other wildlife species.
3. Gaynor, J.S., J. Wimsatt, C. Mallinckrodt, and D. Biggins. 1998. A comparison of sevoflurane and isoflurane for short-term anesthesia in polecats. Journal of Zoo Medicine (In press). Compares physiological responses of ferrets that have been immobilized under these two types of gas anesthesia.
4. Kreeger, T., A. Vargas, G. Plumb, and T. Thorne. 1998. Field anesthesia for black-footed ferrets. J. of Wildlife Management 62(2):654-662. Compares 3 different anesthetics for black-footed ferrets (medetomedine/atipemazol, ketamine/valium, and isofluorane), and discusses the pros and cons of the use of each of these drug combinations as field anesthetics for black-footed ferrets.
5. Stoneberg, Ron. 1996. Implanted Microchips used to Individually Identify Black-footed Ferrets in Montana. Prairie Naturalist 28(4):163-168. Discusses the use of transponder technology to identify reintroduced black-footed ferrets.
6. Thorne, E.T., M.H. Schroeder, S.C. Forrest, T.M. Campbell III, L. Richardson, D. Belitsky, and E.S. Williams. 1985. Capture, immobilization and care of black-footed ferrets for research. Pp. 9.1-9.8 in Proc. Black-footed Ferret Work-shop, Sep. 18-19, 1984, S. Anderson and D.B. Inkley, eds., Wyo. Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne. Discusses field handling methods for black-footed ferrets at Meeteetse.
1. Campbell III, T.M., T.W. Clark, L. Richardson, S.C. Forrest, and B.R. Houston. 1987. Food habits of Wyoming black-footed ferrets. American Midland Nat. 117:208-210. Food habits of wild ferrets based on analysis of scat collected in the field; white-tailed prairie dog remains were found in 87% of all examined scats.
2. Clark, T.W., L. Richardson, S.C. Forrest, T.M. Campbell III, D.Casey, and K.A. Fagerstone. 1985. Black-footed ferret prey base. Pp. 7.1-7.14. in Proc. Black-footed Ferret Workshop, Sep. 18-19, 1984, S. Anderson and D.B. Inkley, eds., Wyo. Game and Fish Dept., Cheyenne. Review of ferret food requirements and prairie dog populations.
3. Hellinga, D.G., J.L. Atkinson, L.Bernal, M.Stevenson, J. Aruda and E.V. Valdes. 1997. Evaluation of the Nutritional Adequacy of Three Diets Fed to the Black-footed Ferrets (Mustela nigripes) at the Toronto Zoo. AZA Nutrition Advisory Group. AZA Regional Meetings. Ft. Worth, TX, Oct, 1997. Compares standard SSP black-footed ferret diet to two other carnivore diets.
4. Joyce, S.L. 1988. Feeding Behavior and Water Requirements of Black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes). M.S. Thesis, University of Wyoming. Laramie, Wyoming. 82pp. Discusses seasonal variation in captive ferret's food intake and also determines that ferrets are capable of renal water conservation during short-term water deprivation.
5. Oyarzun, S.E., K. Self, E.V. Valdes and E.R. Chavez. 1994. An Evaluation of the Nutritional Adequacy of the Feeding Program of the Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) at the Metropolitan Toronto Zoo. Metro Toronto Zoo 1994 Annual Report: 104-123. Compares standard SSP black-footed ferret diet to two other carnivore diets. Concludes that the SSP diet is high in PUFAs and suggests the development of a more adequate diet for captive black-footed ferrets.
6. Powell, R.A., T.W. Clark, L. Richardson, and S.C. Forrest. 1985. Black-footed ferret Mustela nigripes energy expenditure and prey requirements. Biol. Cons. 34:1-15. Bioenergetic model for ferret prey needs.
7. Sheets, R.G., R.L. Linder, and R.B. Dahgren. 1972. Food habits of two litters of black-footed ferrets in South Dakota. Amer. Midl. Nat. 87: 249-251. Food habits of wild ferrets based on analysis of scat collected in the field; black-tailed prairie dog remains were found in 91% of all examined scats).
8. Stromberg, M.R., R.L. Raybun, and T.W. Clark. 1983. Black-footed ferret prey requirements: an energy balance estimate. J. Wildlife Management 47:67-73. Bioenergetic model for ferret prey needs.
9. Vargas, A. and S.H. Anderson. 1996. The Effects of Diet on Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Food Preference. Zoo Biology 15: 105-113. Discusses the development of dietary preferences in black-footed ferrets and concludes that adult ferrets prefer the type of food they have received between 60-90 post-natal days.
1. Biggins, D., J Godbey, L. Hanebury, P Marinari, R. Matchett, and A. Vargas. 1998. Survival of Black-footed Ferrets. J. of Wildlife Management 62:643-653. Discusses the effects of rearing methods on the survival of black-footed ferrets reintroduced into prairie dog colonies in Wyoming, Montana, and South Dakota. Minimum survival rates were three times higher for ferrets reared from early stages in outdoor preconditioning pens with simulated prairie dog habitat.
2. Biggins, D., A. Vargas, G. Godbey, and S. Anderson. 1998. Influence of Pre-release Experience on Reintroduced Black-footed Ferrets. Biological Conservation (in press). Discusses the effects of three rearing methods on the survival of black-footed ferrets reintroduced in Shirley Basin, Wyoming in 1992. Survival rates were three times higher for ferrets reared in outdoor preconditioning pens with simulated prairie dog habitat. Includes a discussion on environmental enrichment for captive animals targeted for release.
3. Carlson, J.C. 1993. Release box use and habitat selection by black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) released into Shirley Basin, Wyoming. MS Thesis. University of Wyoming. 80 pages. An evaluation of a soft-release technique and habitat preferences for ferrets reintroduced in a white-tailed prairie dog town in Shirley Basin Wyoming.
4. Matchett, R. 1997. Charles M. Russell/UL Bend National Wildlife Refuges. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Bulletin, 22(4):22-24. Black-footed ferret reintroductions on UL Bend are reviewed along with effects of rearing technique on captive kit survival in the wild.
5. Matchett, M.R., J.L. Godbey, J.J. Grensten, L.R. Hanebury and R.P. Stoneberg. 1997. Montana black-footed ferret reintroductions, 1994-1997. The Wildlife Society, September 21-27, Snowmass Village, CO. (abstract) 1pp. A discussion on the results from these reintroductions and current assessments of techniques to establish wild black-footed ferret populations.
6. Matchett, M.R. 1998. Black-footed ferret update. Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society, March 3-6, Polson, MT (abstract) 1pp. Current status of black-footed ferret recovery in Montana was reviewed along with efforts in other states and outlooks for the future.
7. Miller, B.J., D.E. Biggins, and R. Crete. 1993. Management of black-footed ferret reintroduction sites: A Summary. Pages 89-92 in Management of Prairie Dog Complexes for Black-footed Ferret Reintroduction. Eds. J. Oldemeyer, D. Biggins, B. Miller, and R. Crete. U.S.F.W.S. Denver Colorado. A summary of a workshop to manage black-footed ferret reintroduction sites.
8. Miller, B., D. Biggins, L. Hanebury, and A. Vargas. 1993. Reintroduction of the black-footed ferret. Pages 455-464 in Creative conservation: Interactive Management of Wild and Captive Animals. Eds. G. Mace, P. Olney, and A. Feisner, Chapmann and Hall, London. A discussion on the development of survival skills and the effects of the captive environment on reintroduction success.
9. Miller, B., D. Biggins, A. Vargas, M. Hutchins, L. Hanebury, J. Godbey, S. Anderson, C. Wemmer, and J. Oldemeyer. 1998. The captive environment and reintroduction. Pages 92-112 in Second Nature: Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals. Ed. D. Shepherdson, J. Mellen, and M. Hutchins. Smithsonian Institution. A description of the captive environment and how it can influence the development of skills necessary for survival in the wild.
1. American Zoo and Aquarium Association. 1996. Black-footed Ferret Recovery Program Analysis and Action Plan. M. Hutchins, R. Wiese, and J. Bowdoin (eds). AZA Executive Office and Conservation Center, Bethesda, Maryland. 137pp. An Action Plan that forwards recommendations that emerged from three three-day meetings designed to review program history, assess program status and develop priority recommendations. Plan comprises three topic areas: (1) captive breeding; (2) reintroduction; and (3) program administration an support activities.
2. Anderson, S.L., and D.B. Inkley (eds.). 1985. Black-footed Ferret Workshop. Laramie, Wyoming, September 18-19, 1984. Wyoming Game and Fish Publications, Cheyenne, Wyoming. A collection of papers from a workshop on black-footed ferrets that includes the following sections: current status of research and management, prairie dog research, back-footed ferret research, captive breeding, agency handling of ferret sightings and current role in ferret management, black-footed ferret populations, survey techniques, and needs and direction for research an management.
3. Biggins, D.E., B.J. Miller, T.W. Clark, and R. Reading. 1997. Conservation management case studies: The black-footed ferret. Pages 420-426 in Principles of Conservation Biology (second edition). Eds. G.K. Meffe and C.R. Carroll. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland MA. Biological and policy issues important to black-footed ferret recovery.
4. Clark, T.W. 1984. Strategies in Endangered Species Conservation: Research View of the Ongoing Black-Footed Ferret Conservation Studies. Pages 145-154 in Symposium on Issues in Technology and Management of Impacted Western Wildlife, Steamboat Springs, Colorado, November, 1982. A historical review of the role of the conservation community in wildlife protection, management, and research; includes examples from black-footed ferret recovery efforts.
5. Clark, T.W. 1989. Conservation biology of the endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). Wildlife Preservation Trust International Special Scientific Report 3. 175pp. This book provides an account of conservation research an recovery efforts on the Meeteetse black-footed ferret population from 1981 through 1988.
6. Forrest, S.C. 1990. Conserving Biological Diversity Under Federal Law: Just Enough? Univ. Wash. School of Law, Seattle, Washington. 56pp. Ferrets discussed in context of federal law protection of endangered species.
7. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 1982. Black-footed ferret. Pages 349-351 in IUCN Red Data Book. Morges, Switzerland. Discusses black-footed ferret ecology, threats to survival, and conservation measures taken and proposed.
8. Miller, B.J., S.H. Anderson, M.W. DonCarlos, and E.T Thorne. 1988. Biology of the Black-Footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) and the Role of Captive Breeding in its Conservation. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 765-773. A review of black-footed ferret ecology and conservation problems.
9. Miller, B.J., R. Reading, and S. Forrest. 1996. Prairie Night: Black-footed Ferrets and the Recovery of Endangered Species. Smithsonian Press. 254 pp. Description of life history, habitat, history, and recovery efforts for the black-footed ferret.
10. Miller, B.J., R. Reading, C. Conway, J.A. Jackson, M. Hutchins, N.Snyder, S. Forrest, J. Frazier, and S. Derrickson. 1994. Improving Endangered Species Programs: Avoiding Organizational Pitfalls, Tapping the Resources, and Adding Accountability. Env. Mgmt. 18: 637-645. Black-footed ferrets discussed in context of organizational impediments to recovery of endangered species.
11. Reading, R. and B. Miller. 1994. The Black-Footed Ferret Recovery Program. Pages 73-100 in Endangered Species Recovery: Finding the Lessons, Improving the Process. Eds. T.W. Clark, A. Clarke, and R. Reading. Island Press, Covelo, California. Policy issues important to black-footed ferret recovery.
12. Reading, R. P. 1993. Toward an Endangered Species Reintroduction Paradigm: A Case Study of the Black-Footed Ferret. Ph.D. Dissertation. Yale University, New Haven, CT. 558 pp. Examines several aspects of a proposed ferret reintroduction in Montana. Analyses of ecological variables included studies of prairie dog colony dynamics and characteristics and population trends of potential ferret predators. Local values, attitudes, and knowledge are evaluated using interviews and a sample, mail survey. Policy and organizational dimensions were evaluated using case studies and interviews.
13. Reading, R. P. and S. R. Kellert. 1993. Attitudes Toward a Proposed Black-Footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Reintroduction. Conservation Biology 7:569-580. This paper explores the values, attitudes, and knowledge of Montana toward a proposed ferret reintroduction. Specifically it looks at urban residents, rural residents, ranchers statewide, local ranchers, and members of conservation organizations.
14. Reading, R., T. Clark, A. Vargas, L. Hanebury, B. Miller, and D. Biggins. 1997. Recent Directions in Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Recovery. Endangered Species Update 13:1-6. A summary update of 10 years of captive breeding and 6 years of reintroduction efforts, with a discussion on management and organizational history.
15. Seal, U.S., E.T. Thorne, M. Bogan, S.H. Anderson (eds.). 1989. Conservation Biology and the Black-footed Ferret. Yale University Press, New Haven Connecticut. 302pp. A collection of papers from a workshop on black-footed ferret biology and small population management. Includes sections on systematics, population biology, reproduction, and management & conservation.
16. Thorne, E.T. and B. Oakleaf. 1991. Species Rescue for Captive Breeding: Black-Footed Ferrets as an Example. Pages 241-261 in Beyond Captive Breeding: Re-introducing Endangered Mammals to the Wild. J.H.W. Gipps (ed.). Clarendon Press, Oxford. Discusses black-footed ferret history and the development of the captive breeding program.
17. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1978. Black-footed Ferret Recovery Plan. R.L. Linder, M.E. Anderson, E.M. Brigham, C.N. Hillman, D.L. Lengreek, A.L. Lovaas, J.K. Mc Dowell, and W.W. Painter (eds.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 145pp. Plan outlines the objective of "maintaining at least one wild self-sustaining population of black-footed ferrets in each state within its former range".
18. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. Black-footed Ferret Recovery Plan. S.C. Forrest and D.E. Biggins (eds.). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Denver, Colorado. 154pp. The Plan outlines steps and an implementation schedule for recovery of the black-footed ferret throughout its historical range. The goals for black-footed ferret recovery include: (1) establish a viable captive population, (2) establish a pre-breeding census of 1500 free-ranging black-footed ferret breeding adults in 10 or more populations by the year 2010, and (3) encourage the widest possible distribution of reintroduced black-footed ferret populations.
19. Vargas A, M. Lockhart, P. Marinari, and P. Gober. 1996. The Reintroduction Process: Black-footed Ferrets as a Case Study. Pages 829-834 in Proceedings for the American Zoo and Aquarium Association Western Regional Conference, May 15-19, 1996, Denver, Colorado. A review of black-footed ferret recovery efforts, including and account of research conducted to support captive breeding and reintroduction needs.
20. Vargas A, P. Gober, M. Lockhart, and P. Marinari. 1998. Black-footed Ferrets: Recovering an Endangered Species in an Endangered Habitat. In Mustelids in a Modern World. H. Griffiths (ed.). Hull University Press, U.K. (In press). Discusses how research has helped manage current black-footed ferret recovery efforts and how new program direction should emphasize habitat conservation.
Captive Behaviors And Development
1. Effects of Captive Generations on Siberian Polecat Predator Avoidance Responses (P.I.: Dean Biggins, USGS Biological Resources Division) Project aims at evaluating behavioral changes in Siberian polecats (Mustela eversmannii dauricus) due to generation time in captivity. Founder stock consisted of wild-caught polecats from Mongolia, study animals are maintained at the Pueblo Army Depot, Colorado. The effects of captivity on subsequent captive generations are dramatic and statistically significant. Polecats are showing symptoms of "domestication," even though there has been no overt attempt to increase tractability. There are important ramifications for captive production of black-footed ferrets (and other species) destined for release to native habitat.
2. Behavioural Profile of the Black Footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) and its Implications for the Species Survival Plan (P.I.: Greg Weston and S. Mc Donald, York University, Canada). This project is a collaboration between York University and the Metro Toronto Zoo, Canada. The overall goals of this project are (1) to determine any behavioural traits indicating reproductive success, (2) to accurately document breeding behaviours, and (3) document general behaviours of captive ferrets. Preliminary results indicate that number of mating attempts (bouts) determine the success of the breeding pair.
1. Asynchony in Sperm Production in Black-footed Ferret Males (P.Is: Jo Gayle Howard and Karen Wolf, National Zoological Park Conservation and Research Center): This is a collaborative research project between the National Zoological Park Conservation and Research Center, Front Royal, VA, and at the National Black-footed ferret Conservation Center (FCC), Sybille Canyon, Wyoming. Our main objective is to assess factors that affect reproductive success in black-footed ferret males. The study compares semen traits and testicular development of prime breeding males (1-4 years of age) maintained under different environmental conditions: outdoor pens, indoor cages under regular photoperiod, and indoor cages under an advanced light regime (14L:10D). Preliminary results that 1-year-old males kept in outdoor pens and caged males in an advanced photoperiod regime produce spermic ejaculates in synchrony with males that are 2-years of age or older. One-year-old caged males in a regular light regime produce spermic ejaculates at least 1 month later in the breeding season than older males. These males appear to be good breeders based on maximu! m de velopment and copulatory behavior, yet produce aspermic or oligospermic ejaculates. Asynchrony in sperm production among male black-footed ferrets may influence the incidence of pseudopregnancy since aspermic males can induce ovulation following copulation.
2. Photoperiod Manipulation to Increase the Productivity of Black-Footed Ferrets. (P.I.: Heather Branvolt and J. Wimsatt, Colorado State University) This is a collaborative research project between Colorado State University, FCC, and USGS Biological Resources Division. The objective of this study is to increase the number of black-footed ferrets produced in captivity through photoperiod manipulation. The goal is to stimulate two breeding seasons within one year. Female ferrets that did not whelp or lost their kits during the normal breeding season are placed in an artificial light cycle to stimulate them to breed again in September and whelp in late October. The artificial breeding season begins in July and lasts until November. In 1997, four out of 12 females began to show signs of estrous. Out of these four, two came in to full estrous. These two females were bred using artificial insemination. A follow-up vaginal cytology indicated that both these females ovulated, and were therefore pregnant or pseudopregnant. Unfortunately, neither of the females whelped. None of the four males used showed any signs of coming in. The males were put on natural lighting in late October to insure they would be ready to breed for the natural season. By Spring of 1998, seven of 10 females are showing signs of estrous.
3. Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Productivity (P.I.: T.M. Bull Bennett and S.H. Anderson, University of Wyoming) This is a collaborative project between the University of Wyoming and FCC. The objectives of these study are: (1) To determine if socialization between black-footed ferret mothers and males offspring prior to breeding season enhances male reproductive success, (2) To test the value of post-copulatory sperm checks as a way to ensure successful mating. Males for this objective are historically proven and must be producing sperm during the specific breeding season, (3) To compare productivity between black-footed ferrets exposed to a natural light cycle and ferrets exposed to an advanced photoperiod, (4) To compare black-footed ferret productivity in indoor and outdoor pens, and (5) To develop a model to determine the probability of a female black-footed ferret producing a litter in a given year based on past reproductive history. Preliminary results for the above objectives indicate the following: (1) socialized males have a higher breeding success than unsocialized counterparts, (2) NDS detected in breeding success of ferret pairs that were subjected to sperm checks vs. those that were not given this post-copulatory treatment, (3) NSD detected in productivity of females exposed to natural and advanced light cycles, respectively, (4) Ferrets that whelped in outdoor preconditioning pens had higher breeding success than ferrets that whelped in cages, (5) Females are most productive during their first three years of life. Females that produce at age one have a high probability of producing at subsequent ages. Females that produce at age two have a 67% probability of producing at age three.
1. Efficacy of canine distemper vaccines to protect black-footed ferrets [P.I.: Beth Williams (University of Wyoming), Dick Montali (National Zoological Park), Dean Biggins (USGS Biological Resources Division), Jeff Wimsatt (Colorado State University)] This is a collaborative study funded by the AZA. We are using black-footed ferret x Siberian polecat hybrids as a model for species that are exquisitely susceptible to canine distemper, including black-footed ferrets. We are studying the response of hybrids to commercially available modified-live virus canine distemper vaccine, killed vaccine, and poxvirus recombinant vaccine.
2. Efficacy of a Recombinant Canary-pox Distemper Vaccine in Siberian Polecats [P.Is.: Jeff Wimsatt (Colorado State University), Dean Biggins (USGS Biological Resources Division), Beth Williams (University of Wyoming)] Trials were conducted on 68 Siberian polecats (Mustela eversmannii dauricus) to evaluate the safety and efficacy of a new recombinant canine distemper vaccine. Oral administration of the vaccine was effective in preventing the disease during challenges. Subcutaneous dose rates were tested, but more work is needed. A modified live virus vaccine delivered to animals vaccinated earlier with the recombinant vaccine may have been responsible for the survival of that treatment group, and suggests that vaccines may be combined (in an attempt to improve safety of the live virus vaccines).
3. Effects of Plague on White-tailed Prairie Dog Colonies in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah (P.I.: Dean Biggins and J. Godbey, USGS Biological Resources Division) This investigation will compare the health of prairie dogs complexes at intervals of at least 10 years, and will attempt to correlate that information with descriptions of respective morphology of each complex. The first step in this study was to search old records for candidate sites where historic prairie dog data exist regarding extent of colonies and density of prairie dogs or their burrows. This step has been completed and resulted in documenting potentially suitable complexes in southern Wyoming (13), northwest Colorado (5), and eastern Utah (4). During 1997, we began to re-sample these complexes using mapping and burrow activity sampling with strip transects. One complex was completed in Colorado, 2 in Wyoming, and 1 in Utah. Data analyses are in progress.
4. Dynamics of Plague in White-tailed Prairie Dogs in Shirley Basin, WY. [P.Is.: Beth Williams (University of Wyoming) and Bob Luce (Wyoming Game and Fish Department)] This study is aimed at understanding the dynamics of sylvatic plague in white-tailed prairie dogs. We are examining use of carnivore serology and small mammal serology over time to detect local plague activity. Carnivores show a high seroprevalence (85-99%) in Shirley Basin since 1990. Small mammal surveys (blood sample collection) are an excellent method for localized plague monitoring.
5. Dynamics of Canine Distemper in Black-footed Ferret Reintroduction Sites (P.I.: Beth Williams (University of Wyoming), reintroduction sites in Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and Arizona) This long term collaborative study is done in connection with disease surveillance activities at reintroduction sites. The goal of this work is to understand the epizootiology of canine distemper in carnivores sympatric with black-footed ferrets so that we can better understand how to manage free-ranging ferrets and predict when an epizootic of canine distemper may occur.
6. Efficacy of a Recombinant Yersinia pestis Vaccine in Black-footed Ferrets, Prairie Dogs and Other Rodents (P.Is: Tonie Rocke, Christopher Brand (National Wildlife Health Center). This is a collaborative research project between the NWHC, CDC, and the University of Wyoming. Project aims to determine the efficacy of a recombinant raccoon-pox virus plague vaccine against plague in ferrets. Specific objectives are: (1) Determine if the virus vector in the recombinant plague vaccine is safe to use in domestic ferrets, (2) Determine if Siberian polecats immunized with the recombinant plague vaccine are protected from plague infection, (3) Evaluate the efficacy and duration of immunity in black-footed ferrets immunized with recombinant plague vaccine. Domestic ferret trials of Heska's raccoon pox will begin in spring 1998. Antibodies against the poxvirus will be measured by ELISA. Hybrids and black-footed ferrets would be used in trials in summer/fall 1998, depending upon results obtained with domestic ferrets. Recombinant plague vaccine will also be tested in prairie dogs and other rodents. Assuming success of outlined studies, the efficacy of this vac! cine will be evaluated in subsequent studies involving field trials.
7. Susceptibility of Siberian Polecats to Plague [(P.Is.: Jeff Wimsatt (Colorado State University), May Chu (Centers for Disease Control), Dean Biggins (USGS Biological Resources Division)] The objectives of this project are: (1) Determining if there is a difference between black-footed ferrets and Siberian polecats in their susceptibility to plague, (2) Determining how does dose rate influence mortality rate. Challenge of Siberian polecats indicated they are highly susceptible to Y. pestis, and mortality was similar to what has been seen with hybrid ferrets. Black-footed ferrets may be even more susceptible based on similar work. Necropsies on challenged Siberian polecats showed disseminated plague which was similar to plague in black- footed ferrets.
8. Field Efficacy Trials of Pyriproxifen for Suppression/Eradication of Flea Populations in Prairie Dog Colonies (P.I.: Rory Karhu, University of Wyoming) Pyriproxifen, a flea sterilizing hormone, has interesting potential as a measure to control plague both in the field and in quarantined prairie dogs. Field trials using pyriproxifen for treating prairie dogs for fleas in the field have been conducted on the Rocky Mountain Arsenal using treated bait, powder, and spray. Results in 1997 did not show a treatment effect. In 1998, the study will include more frequent treatments and increased concentration in the bait, burrow sampling for fleas, and increase in sample sizes.
9. Use of Insect Growth Regulators to Control Fleas on Prairie Dogs. (P.Is.: Margaret Wild and Kevin Castle, Colorado Division of Wildfire). This is a collaborative project between CDW, Virvac, Novartis, and USGS-BRD. We will evaluate Insect Growth Regulators (IGR) as an alternative management tool to control flea populations --and subsequently interrupt the plague disease cycle-of prairie dogs. Lufenuron and pyriproxifen will first be tested on captive prairie dogs maintained under controlled conditions to determine: (1) effective dose; (2) duration of efficacy; (3) an optimal oral delivery system; (4) safety of product overdose. Success of reproduction and emergence of young fleas will be monitored to determine efficacy of test to products. I products prove effective on prairie dogs, we propose testing efficacy in polecats (as a model for black-footed ferrets).
10. Epidemiology and Pathology of Neoplasia in the Captive Population of Black-footed Ferrets. (P.I.: Stephane Lair, University of Guelph, Canada) This research aims to better characterize the neoplastic conditions encountered in black-footed ferrets from the captive population. Information has been obtained from black-footed ferret records across the SSP program. Objectives are: (1) Characterization of the phenotype and of biological behaviour of neoplasms encountered in black-footed ferrets; (2) Determination of the incidence and prevalence of specific neoplasms and of neoplasia as a whole in the captive population of black-footed ferrets; (3) Evaluation of the association between neoplastic diseases in this population and host factors, such as sex, age, reproductive history, and inbreeding coefficient; and (4) Evaluation of family relationships among black-footed ferrets affected by neoplasia.
1. Conservation Genetics of the Endangered Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes). (P.I.: Francis Villablanca, University of Hawaii). The main objective of this study is to determine black-footed ferret genetic variability and phylogenetic relationships between black-footed ferrets (ferrets) and the congeneric Siberian polecat (M. eversmannii). To test the hypothesis that black-footed ferrets and Siberian polecats are sister species we investigated mitochondrial DNA sequences for cytochrome b (440 bases) and the control region (370 bases). Results indicate that ferrets and polecats are not sister species; black-footed ferrets are more closely related to some polecat subspecies than to others. The mean diversity of cyt b is 0.0% (n=5) for black-footed ferrets and 0.88% (n=5) for polecats. The mean diversity in the control region is 0.32% and 2.19% in ferrets and polecats, respectively. Ferret museum specimens will be used to investigate the historical population genetic structure of free-ranging ferrets. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers will be used for estimating demographic histories and genetic ! flow. We will also analyze gene tic sequences for the black-footed ferret captive population founders and for specimens from the free-ranging Mellete County, South Dakota population. We aim to answer the following questions: (1) does the species show a comparably low level of diversity or is this a result of genetic isolation and captive breeding?; (2) do the genes in which functional diversity is important (immunogenetically) also show low level of diversity, or has selection maintained diversity? (we will use museum and frozen specimens to answer these questions).
2. Assessment of Genetic Variation in Ecologically Important Traits of the Black-footed Ferret (Mustela nigripes). (P.Is: S.M. Wisely and S.W. Buskirk, University of Wyoming) Our objective is to determine the amount of heritable variation in fertility, fecundity and morphology of captive and reintroduced populations of black-footed ferrets. We will also quantify the response to selection of animals in the captive environment and animals that have been reintroduced into the wild. By identifying the amount of additive genetic variability present in black-footed ferrets and quantifying the response to different selection pressures, we will better understand the strengths and vulnerabilities of reintroduced populations to adapt to a changing environment.
Habitat Management (also see Diseases section for some habitat-related projects)
1. Black-footed Ferret Habitat Management at the Charles Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Montana (P.I.: Randy Matchett and Mike Hedrick, Fish and Wildfire Service) Over 300 prairie dogs were translocated during 1997 to colonies that died out recently, presumably from sylvatic plague. These efforts will continue and techniques will be refined to restore prairie dogs to suitable areas that will provide habitat for ferrets and other prairie dog associated species. We also remain interested in other methods to manage plague.
1. Exploration of Alternative Diets for Captive Black-Footed Ferrets. (P.I.: T. Anderson, Fish & Wildlife Service, and S.H. Anderson, University of Wyoming). The primary objective of this research is to determine the feasibility of using commercially available diets for captive black-footed ferrets. Study animals are maintained at FCC, Wyoming. Diets will be tested for every stage of the ferrets life history, and measurements will be taken on growth and development, reproduction, and health.
1. Carrying Capacity to Support a Black-footed Ferret Reintroduced Population [(P.Is.: Dean Biggins & Jerry Godbey (USGS Biological Resources Division), Randy Matchett (Fish and Wildlife Service)] At the 1994-95 release areas on Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge, black-footed ferret densities currently exceed the highest densities recorded in historic ferret populations, increasing the chance that social factors are or soon will become limiting. A study was conducted to assess the effect of boosting part of that population to even higher levels, and compare the result with a control site where no artificial augmentation was done. Beginning in August, 1997, we radio-collared about 50% of the free-ranging ferrets on the treatment and control areas. Intensive radio-tracking with a null-peak telemetry system was accomplished during September-November. An additional 20 radio-collared, pre-conditioned, captive-bred ferrets were released in October on the augmentation site. The 30,000 data lines generated on radio-tagged animals are being analyzed. Movements and minimum survival will be compared between residents and newly released animals and between residents! in areas that were and were not augmented with captive-bred ferrets. Intensive spotlight surveys were conducted 30-days post-release to estimate population size and distribution. Pre-breeding and post-breeding spotlight surveys will be conducted in 1998.
2. Black-footed Ferret Detectability During Spotlight Survey Efforts [(P.Is.: Randy Matchett (Fish and Wildlife Service), Dean Biggins and Jerry Godbey (USGS Biological Resources Division)] The objective of this project is to determine the accuracy of spotlighting as a technique to detect black-footed ferrets in the field. Observations from spotlighting during 1995 and 1997 are being compared to ferret activity simultaneously determined from telemetry.
3. Establishment and Accuracy Assessment of Fixed Station Telemetry Systems. (P.I.s: Randy Matchett (Fish and Wildfire Service), Dean Biggins & Jerry Godbey (USGS Biological Resources Division)] Locations of test transmitters were estimated with null-peak telemetry systems used during black-footed ferret radio-tracking on UL Bend in 1994, 1995 and 1997 while simultaneously establishing locations with differentially corrected GPS data. Quantifying locational error from telemetry systems will influence design of habitat and resource selection analyses.
4. Modeling the Black-footed Ferret Reintroduced Population at the Charles Russell National Wildlife Refuge, Montana (P.I.: Randy Matchett and Rich Harris, Fish and Wildlife Service) Observed survival and reproductive rates from ferrets at UL Bend during the last 4 years were applied to the existing November 1997 population. The results indicate this population will decline dramatically unless reproductive rates and survival increase substantially or augmentation with captive-reared ferrets is continued. Many questions still exist about effects of habitat, inbreeding, loss of survival characteristics from captivity, ferret density, etc. and investigations are continuing.
5. Effects of Black-footed Ferret Density and Time of Release on Survival and Site Fidelity.[(P.I.: R. Stoneberg (Montana Game, Fish & Parks), and T. Vosburgh(Fort Belknap Indian Reservation)] Study aims at determining the effects of releasing black-footed ferrets scattered through the reintroduction area on detectability, survival success and site fidelity at the Fort Belknap Reintroduction Site in Montana. Study also attempts to determine the effects of prey densities on ferret post-release survival.
6. Comparisons of On-site and Off-site Pre-release Conditioning on Black-footed Ferret Post-release Behaviors and Survival (P.I: Dean Biggins, USGS Biological Resource Division) This is a collaborative project between USGS and reintroduction sites in South Dakota and Colorado-Utah. In fall, 1997, an experimental release of black-footed ferrets in Conata Basin, Buffalo Gap National Grasslands, South Dakota, was conducted to compare ferrets pre-conditioned in outdoor pens at a captive breeding facility with ferrets moved to pens located on the grasslands. Radio-tracking from fixed stations for 11-13 days on 36 tagged animals produced 4781 lines of data. Dispersal and nightly movements were significantly less for ferrets placed in pens at the rearing facility than for ferrets transferred to pens at the reintroduction site. Differences between the groups may be attributable to on-site vs off-site pen location, to differences between transient and resident ferret treatment (e.g. ferrets conditioned at the breeding facility were moved to pens at an earlier age and had longer residence times in pens time), or to a combination of the two. Similar compari! sons are intended for the proposed Colorado-Utah black-footed ferret reintroduction.
7. Spotlight Detectability of Black-footed Ferrets at Conata Basin/Badlands, South Dakota (P.I.: T. Livieri, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point). The objectives of this study are: 1) Assess the precision and accuracy of current black-footed ferret spotlighting techniques. 2) Quantify the influence of multiple variables on black-footed ferret detectability.
8. Evaluation of Outdoor Pens Located at Reintroduction Sites for Breeding, Whelping and Release of Black-footed Ferrets. [(P.I.: Bill Van Pelt (Arizona Game and Fish Department), Dean Biggins (USGS Biological Resources Division)] Two reintroduction sites, AZ and CO-UT will be testing this management approach. The Arizona Game and Fish Department has a total of 21 breeding females (1-4-years-old) placed in onsite preconditioning pens. During the 1998 breeding season, these females will be bred in pens to available males. Project aims to determine whether ferret kits born, raised, and preconditioned on-site behave and survive differently that ferret kits born and raised off-site but preconditioned on-site. Similar comparisons are intended for the proposed Colorado-Utah black-footed ferret reintroduction.
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